The European Union stands as one of the world’s leading environmental policymakers, with over 200 policies spanning sectors aimed at reducing environmental harm. Over the past three decades, the EU has reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 37 percent, and is on track to achieve a 55 percent reduction by 2030, a stark example of both long-term commitment and policy effectiveness. Its leadership in climate governance has positioned the EU as a global model, with its frameworks shaping environmental policy far beyond its borders.
One aspect of climate change that is becoming increasingly evident and internationally recognized is the adverse impact of climate change on marginalized communities. Across international institutions, there is a growing consensus that environmental protection cannot be separated from the protection of human rights. Despite the EU’s progress, current legislation lacks sufficient nuance in addressing the systemic inequalities that make certain communities more vulnerable. As a result, existing frameworks often fail to fully account for how climate change disproportionately affects marginalized groups.
International recognition of access to a safe environment as a human right is a relatively new concept, as organizations have begun to consider the global implications of climate change. Such recognition is essential to establish broader global acceptance of individuals’ and communities' fundamental right to a safe environment, and influence policies that include and protect them. A landmark development came in July 2025, when the International Court of Justice issued its Advisory Opinion on the Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change. This opinion builds on decades of evolving international norms linking environmental protection to fundamental rights. Early milestones, such as the 1972 Stockholm Declaration, first established the idea that a healthy environment is essential to the enjoyment of fundamental rights.² More recently, United Nations Human Rights Council resolutions have reinforced this connection, recognizing that environmental degradation directly limits access to basic needs such as health, food, and water.³ In particular, Resolution 48/13 formally recognized the right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment, while Resolution 50/9 further emphasized how climate change constrains individuals’ ability to fully realize their rights.⁴
Together with foundational treaties such as the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, these frameworks establish that environmental protection is not merely a policy objective, but a legal and moral obligation. ⁵ Taken together, these frameworks shape the ICJ’s position that environmental protection is not only a policy priority, but a legal and moral obligation. In practice, this means that addressing climate change is essential to protecting people’s fundamental rights, particularly for communities already facing heightened vulnerability.⁶
Climate discourse often centers on long-term, global risks. However, an equally urgent reality is the immediate and uneven impact it is already having on specific communities. While its effects are universal, its burdens are not.⁷ As Laetitia Courtois notes, climate change “worsens vulnerabilities, deepens inequalities, and can exacerbate factors that contribute to tensions.”⁸
One of the most affected groups is the Romani population, the largest ethnic minority in Europe, which continues to face systemic barriers across the region. According to the European Environment Agency, Romani communities are disproportionately exposed to water-related injustices.⁹ Romania provides a particularly stark example, where longstanding inequalities have combined with climate-related pressures to further increase vulnerability among Romani populations. In Romania, Romani communities are more vulnerable to flooding and lack reliable access to potable water.10 These issues are further worsened by the ongoing risk of eviction of the Romani people, as the minority group is constantly under threat of relocation as a result of Romania’s policies prioritizing investments over Romani neighborhood development.
In the last decade, there have been several incidents in which Romani people were evicted from their homes and relocated to areas that were in worse condition and are more at risk of facing adverse impacts of climate change. As a result, there are few long-term environmental protections tailored to the needs of Romani communities, while state-led evictions continue to place many families in increasingly vulnerable environmental conditions.¹¹
As a Member State of the European Union, Romania has developed policies to address climate risks, including its 2024 National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction.¹² While this strategy outlines commitments to managing climate-related threats, it does not account for the specific vulnerabilities of Romani communities, despite their heightened exposure to climate-related risks. This omission reflects a broader pattern across the EU: those most affected by climate change are often excluded from the policies designed to address it.
Socioeconomic inequality further amplifies climate vulnerability. Lower-income individuals are more likely to reside in high-risk areas, often due to housing market constraints that push them toward flood-prone or environmentally degraded locations. In the EU, lower-income individuals often live in areas and housing situations that are more at risk of experiencing the effects of climate change, as they are often more exposed to extreme weather events and temperatures.13 A study conducted by the European Environment Agency found that lower-income groups are often driven by the housing market to areas that are more prone to floods, since these are where the cheapest housing options are.14
Climate events will become more extreme and unpredictable as a result of global warming, posing serious threats to communities in at-risk areas.15 Additionally, not only are lower-income groups most affected by climate disasters like flooding, but the financial burdens posed by damages and losses caused by a climate disaster are most significant for poorer areas, whose communities often do not count on support from insurance.16 These are just some examples of the systemic inequalities and issues that existed prior to environmental concerns, but are worsened significantly by the impacts of climate change.
In addition, it is not just climate change itself that disproportionately harms people with a lower socioeconomic status, but also the policies aimed at mitigating climate change and reducing consumption that worsen inequalities. In the EU, a number of policies have been implemented that raise the cost of energy and fuel in order to disincentivize the consumption of fossil fuels. For example, the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS2), a policy introduced within the European Green Deal, established pricing based on the amount of fuel used for houses and transportation, thus incentivizing the use of cleaner options due to higher costs.17 Rising energy costs can force vulnerable populations to reduce essential usage, including heating and cooling, creating direct health risks, particularly during extreme weather events. One study found that across Europe, lower-income households are less able to heat and cool their homes than wealthier households as a result of the increased costs associated with operating cooling systems.18 This is especially relevant due to rising temperatures, posing serious health risks to individuals unable to regulate the temperature of their homes. Thus, climate inequality operates on two fronts: through exposure to environmental harm and through the unequal burden of policy responses.
The adverse impact of climate change on marginalized groups, including ethnic minorities and lower-income individuals, limits their ability to enjoy their human rights to the fullest extent. As previously established, the right to a safe and clean environment is internationally recognized as a human right, and yet, many marginalized groups are not afforded this right. The current state of environmental policy in the EU is in conflict with the International Court of Justice’s Advisory Opinion and the obligations of States to protect the environment while simultaneously protecting human rights. In order for the European Union to uphold its commitment to affording every citizen the full extent of their human rights, there must be a concerted effort to reduce socioeconomic disparities and the marginalization of ethnic minority groups within the context of climate policies, so that the root causes of the adverse impacts of climate change are addressed.
The European Union has extensive policies across numerous sectors regarding climate change and mitigating the EU’s impact on the environment. Most notably, the European Green Deal, enacted in 2019, is the EU’s most comprehensive climate policy framework.19 The European Green Deal includes large-scale legislation, including the European Climate Law, which aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, and the Circular Economy Action Plan, which promotes resource efficiency, waste reduction, and sustainable product design with new regulations.20 Also within the European Green Deal are several policies that aim to support vulnerable communities in the shift to a more sustainable EU. One such policy is the Just Transition Mechanism, which is described by the Commission as the “...key tool to ensure that the transition towards a climate-neutral economy happens in a fair way, leaving no one behind.” 21
The Just Transition Mechanism aims to support regions, communities, and workers in the business of fossil fuels who are most impacted by the transition to more sustainable industries. Its goals include facilitating employment in new sectors, investing in measures that reduce energy poverty, and improving access to clean and affordable energy.22 Many of the workers in the fossil fuel industry are of low socioeconomic status, and the Just Transition Mechanism is one measure the EU has taken to ensure that their policy changes are not detrimentally harming vulnerable, poorer communities. The Social Climate Fund is another measure the EU has implemented in order to facilitate an inclusive transition to sustainability. The fund will financially support low-income individuals and families who will be most affected by the EU’s implementation of climate neutrality strategies that raise energy and fuel prices.23 As discussed previously, the rising costs associated with sustainability measures have significantly impacted lower-income households, and this measure is crucial in leveling the impact of climate policy on EU residents of all wealth statuses. Overall, the EU has implemented measures that reduce the impact of the transition to sustainability and climate neutrality on vulnerable communities by establishing policies that financially support the groups that are most impacted by policies that mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Despite the efforts and progress in the EU, the impact of the transition to sustainability is just one of the issues facing vulnerable communities. There are several other aspects where EU policy falls short. In particular, there are no overarching policies that facilitate the support of vulnerable populations who are impacted the most by climate change itself. In other words, the current priority of the EU is the substantive and material efforts to reduce consumption and waste and mitigate environmental impacts, with little recognition and support for the short-term effects on communities adversely impacted by climate change.
An opinion piece published by the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats puts a finer point on this limitation of the current EU policy framework, as it emphasizes the need for an adaptation law, explaining the goal to “set clear, measurable targets and adopt a holistic approach that tackles underlying social, economic and environmental injustices head-on.”24 In essence, the piece argues that mitigating climate change is not enough, and the social justice component of climate change and its consequences, as well as the inequalities exacerbated by global warming, are an area that is currently absent within EU law. Another key area of analysis is representation as essential in the policy-making process, with some arguing that the lack of inclusion of vulnerable communities has rendered them forgotten in the climate policy sphere. This is particularly true for ethnic minority groups like the Roma population.
The legal basis provided by the International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion and other frameworks regarding access to a safe and clean environment as a human right, coupled with the implications of climate change on vulnerable groups in the European Union, places an obligation on the supranational organization to act. The European Union’s commitment to the environment is evident; however, in the area of addressing the implications and adverse impacts of climate change itself on vulnerable groups, the EU’s policy framework requires more development. Although the European Union’s policy framework inadequately addresses systemic inequalities, there are individual cities in EU Member States that have developed policies and programs with this correspondence as a key consideration.
Barcelona’s approach demonstrates a clear pathway forward for the European Union. By embedding community participation and flexibility into policy design, the EU can better address the immediate and unequal impacts of climate change. Incorporating mechanisms for meaningful representation of vulnerable groups in policymaking would allow the EU to more accurately identify urgent needs and design policies that are both effective and equitable. The needs of the community are the core of their programs, with many projects designed by the individuals within Barcelona. As aforementioned, access to decision-making is often limited for marginalized communities, and thus, the affected community’s involvement in the policy-making process is an important element in Barcelona’s climate policy framework. A key example of Barcelona’s community-oriented approach is the city’s response to the rising temperatures and the challenges that the heat causes. As global warming has accelerated, Barcelona has experienced a significant increase in heat waves and droughts, posing a threat to the health and safety of Barcelona residents.25 In response to this issue, the city launched the “Climate shelters in schools” project in 2019, aiming at, “...transforming schoolyards considered vulnerable to heat into so-called ‘cool islands’ open to all citizens…”.26 This effort had a significant positive impact and resulted in the installation of 74 trees and 26 new water points, improving the accessibility of water and cool places during heat waves and droughts.27 The lower-income neighborhoods, which tend to be more ethnically diverse, benefited considerably from this program.28 Further, the project relied heavily on incorporating the voice of the community, with students, local institutions, and experts co-designing the “cool islands” based on the specific needs of each community.
Another example of Barcelona’s commitment to both aiding marginalized communities most impacted by climate change through policies and projects and ensuring their inclusion in developing these policies and projects is their 2012 “Pla BUITS” project, which roughly translates from Catalan to “Vacant Lots Plan”. This initiative focused on developing unused land as plots that can be temporarily used by non-profit environmental groups. Since the establishment of this program, wastelands and unused plots have been transformed into green spaces and community buildings where residents can learn about urban gardening, bioconstruction, and permaculture, with projects focused on the requests of the communities.29 As with the “Climate shelters in schools” program, this government-funded project supports the restoration of marginalized groups' access to a clean and safe environment, as well as vulnerable populations’ agency and voice during the process. Barcelona’s climate policy follows the obligations prescribed in the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion, as the government has addressed the consequences of climate change, the adverse impacts on vulnerable groups, and the limitations on those vulnerable groups’ ability to fully enjoy their fundamental human right to a safe environment.
Barcelona may serve as a model for other EU cities, as a strong example of effective action that addresses the short-term impacts of climate change on vulnerable populations. Barcelona’s model of setting climate policies and implementing programs is a potential method for the European Union to utilize in combating climate inequality more broadly. As a first step towards a climate policy framework similar to Barcelona’s, the EU could incorporate a mechanism for the representation of excluded vulnerable groups in the policy-making process. This could help clarify the most urgent needs faced by vulnerable communities throughout the EU, and assist policymakers in understanding the impacts of climate change, as well as climate change policy on disproportionately impacted groups. Ultimately, Barcelona’s approach and success show the potential for climate policy in the EU, and how it has the ability to be more centered around immediate climate concerns and community needs.
In summary, the environment, human rights, and the adverse effects of global warming on marginalized populations are greatly interconnected. The International Court of Justice’s Advisory Opinion and preceding legal frameworks outline the intersection of the protection of the environment and the protection of human rights, placing an obligation on the governments of countries to ensure that their populations are able to fully enjoy their human rights by addressing the short-term threats posed by climate change. Climate change has limited the ability of people to fully enjoy fundamental human rights, including access to water, food, and a safe environment, especially for groups that are most adversely impacted by global warming. Those most vulnerable in the European Union include ethnic minorities and lower socioeconomic groups, whose inequalities are deepened as a result of climate change. This multifaceted issue requires a dynamic approach from the European Union in order to minimize the harmful impacts of climate change on at-risk communities. As climate change intensifies, so do the inequalities it exposes and amplifies. Addressing these challenges is not only a matter of environmental policy, but of justice and responsibility. For the European Union, meaningful progress will depend on its ability to confront systemic inequities and center the voices and needs of those most affected. The future of climate policy must not only reduce emissions but also actively reshape systems to ensure no community is left behind.
1 Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change (Advisory Opinion) [2025] ICJ, 51
2 UN General Assembly, United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, A/RES/2994, UN General Assembly, 15 December 1972.
3 Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change (Advisory Opinion) [2025] ICJ, 7
4 UN Human Rights Council, The human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment, A/HRC/RES/48/13 8 October 2021.
5 Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change (Advisory Opinion) [2025] ICJ, 108
6 Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change (Advisory Opinion) [2025] ICJ
7 Laetitia Courtois, “Climate Change Affects Everyone, but Not Equally” (United Nations Security Council High-Level Open Debate, February 14, 2024).
8 Laetitia Courtois, “Climate Change Affects Everyone, but Not Equally”
9 “‘Leave No One Behind’ Must Be Central to Europe’s Climate Resilience Efforts,” European Environment Agency, June 10, 2025, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/newsroom/news/leave-no-one-behind.
10 Filip Alexandrescu et al., “On the Path of Evictions and Invisibilization: Poor Roma Facing Climate Vulnerability,” Cities 114 (July 2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103201.
11 Filip Alexandrescu et al., “On the Path of Evictions and Invisibilization”
12 “National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2024-2035 - Climate Change Laws of the World,” Climate Change Laws, 2024,
https://climate-laws.org/documents/national-strategy-for-disaster-risk-reduction-2024-2035_68c5?id=national-strate gy-for-disaster-risk-reduction-2024-2035_cdb6.
13 World Bank Group, “Social Dimensions of Climate Change,” World Bank, April 1, 2023, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/social-dimensions-of-climate-change.
14 “‘Leave No One Behind’ Must Be Central to Europe’s Climate Resilience Efforts”
15 Ayat Behrozinezhad, Maryam Moradi, and Mohsen Dianat, “Groups Affected by Climate Change and Those Bearing Responsibility for Its Consequences,” Interdisciplinary Studies in Society, Law, and Politics 3, no. 4 (2024): 55–66, https://doi.org/10.61838/kman.isslp.3.4.5.
16 Barcelona City Council, “In What Way Are We Vulnerable? | Barcelona for Climate | Ajuntament de Barcelona,” www.barcelona.cat, n.d.,
https://www.barcelona.cat/barcelona-pel-clima/en/how-does-climate-change-affect-us/what-way-are-we-vulnerable.
17 European Commission, “EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS),” Climate Action, 2025, https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/carbon-markets/eu-emissions-trading-system-eu-ets_en.
18 “‘Leave No One Behind’ Must Be Central to Europe’s Climate Resilience Efforts,” European Environment Agency
19 European Commission, “The European Green Deal,” 2019,
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en.
20 European Commission, “The European Green Deal”
21 European Commission, “The Just Transition Mechanism,” 2022,
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal/finance-and-green-deal/ just-transition-mechanism_en.
22 European Commission, “The Just Transition Mechanism”
23 European Commission, “Social Climate Fund,” October 9, 2025,
https://employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies-and-activities/funding/social-climate-fund_en.
24 García Pérez Iratxe and Chahim Mohammed, “Mitigating Climate Change Is No Longer Enough: Europeans Need Protection,” Socialists & Democrats, May 9, 2024,
https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/publications/mitigating-climate-change-no-longer-enough-europeans-need-protection.
25 Barcelona City Council, “In What Way Are We Vulnerable? | Barcelona for Climate | Ajuntament de Barcelona,”
26 Ana T. Amorim-Maia et al., “Intersectional Climate Justice: A Conceptual Pathway for Bridging Adaptation Planning, Transformative Action, and Social Equity,” Urban Climate 41 (January 2022): 101053, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2021.101053.
27 Ana T. Amorim-Maia et al., “Intersectional Climate Justice”
28 Ana T. Amorim-Maia et al., “Intersectional Climate Justice”
Alexandrescu, Filip, Ionuț-Marian Anghel, Júlia Adorjáni, Lucrina Ștefănescu, Alina Pop, and Anca Mihai. “On the Path of Evictions and Invisibilization: Poor Roma Facing Climate Vulnerability.” Cities 114 (July 2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103201.
Amorim-Maia, Ana T., Isabelle Anguelovski, Eric Chu, and James Connolly. “Intersectional Climate Justice: A Conceptual Pathway for Bridging Adaptation Planning, Transformative Action, and Social Equity.” Urban Climate 41 (January 2022): 101053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2021.101053.
Barcelona City Council. “In What Way Are We Vulnerable? | Barcelona for Climate | Ajuntament de Barcelona.” www.barcelona.cat, n.d.
https://www.barcelona.cat/barcelona-pel-clima/en/how-does-climate-change-affect-us/wh at-way-are-we-vulnerable.
Behrozinezhad, Ayat, Maryam Moradi, and Mohsen Dianat. “Groups Affected by Climate Change and Those Bearing Responsibility for Its Consequences.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Society, Law, and Politics 3, no. 4 (2024): 55–66.
https://doi.org/10.61838/kman.isslp.3.4.5.
Climate Change Laws. “National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2024-2035 - Climate Change Laws of the World,” 2024.
https://climate-laws.org/documents/national-strategy-for-disaster-risk-reduction-2024-20 35_68c5?id=national-strategy-for-disaster-risk-reduction-2024-2035_cdb6.
Courtois, Laetitia. “Climate Change Affects Everyone, but Not Equally.” Presented at the United Nations Security Council High-Level Open Debate, February 14, 2024.
European Commission. “EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS).” Climate Action, 2025. https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/carbon-markets/eu-emissions-trading-system-eu-et s_en.
European Commission. “Social Climate Fund,” October 9, 2025.
https://employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies-and-activities/funding/social-clim ate-fund_en.
European Commission. “The European Green Deal,” 2019.
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-d eal_en.
European Commission. “The Just Transition Mechanism,” 2022.
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-d eal/finance-and-green-deal/just-transition-mechanism_en.
European Environment Agency. “‘Leave No One Behind’ Must Be Central to Europe’s Climate Resilience Efforts,” June 10, 2025. https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/newsroom/news/leave-no-one-behind.
Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change (Advisory Opinion) [2025] ICJ
Pérez Iratxe, García, and Chahim Mohammed. “Mitigating Climate Change Is No Longer Enough: Europeans Need Protection.” Socialists & Democrats, May 9, 2024. https://www.socialistsanddemocrats.eu/publications/mitigating-climate-change-no-longer -enough-europeans-need-protection.
World Bank Group. “Social Dimensions of Climate Change.” World Bank, April 1, 2023. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/social-dimensions-of-climate-change.
UN Human Rights Council, The human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment, A/HRC/RES/48/13 8 October 2021.
United Nations General Assembly, United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, A/RES/2994, UN General Assembly, 15 December 1972,
https://www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/unga/1972/en/9934